Dr. D. E. Masini                                                                                                  Spencer Galloway
Research in Allied Health ALHE4060
Exam for Bailey Workbook.  This is an Open Book exam, and you may use any tools or documents to complete this exam.  No team testing or assistance from peers is allowed, the tenets of the ETSU Honor Code covers your taking this exam.    Directions: Complete this exam contextually, in that all questions should refer to Bailey's Workbook and to your study that you are handing in for credit.  You may refer to your bibliography or practical examples if the question is not addressed in your study.  This semester (as an experiment) you will post Bailey's Exam to the Student webpage.  Let me know how I can assist you...dr. m

Your instructor has reviewed several strategies to conduct and report on scientific research.  Discuss the procedures in the positivistic, scientific method and the components of this research paper. List two reasons why you agree or disagree with this worldview and how you might utilize it for your future research agenda.

Quantitative research is the most positivistic research method. Due to the fact that “The purpose of quantitative research is theory-testing: to establish facts, to show causal explanations and relationships between variables, allow prediction, and strive for generalizability.” (Bailey 49) What makes the quantitative approach so useful is that the study becomes solid and structured. With quantitative approach the study doesn’t shift or change during the course of the study. Also the information gathered tends to be statistical, involving numbers percentages, and measurements all of these help build a strong researched platform for the topic. For such studies the quantitative approach uses large subject samples and relies on random selection to choose the subjects that will be represented from the population. A drawback of the quantitative researchers is that the researcher spends little human involvement with the subjects. They come across as detached and distant. The research does this as to not influence the data through his personal involvement with the subjects. “Quantitative methods include experiments, quasi-experiments, structured surveys, structured surveys, structured interviewing, structured observations, data sets, manipulation, control, and statistical analysis of data.” (Bailey 50) The tools available for data collection for quantitative studies are often varied and can be complex; they can include scales and tests, questionnaires, inventories, or other types of hardware. The other form of research is qualitative research. Its purpose is to develop concepts that will allow the sensitize of readers to immerse them into the cultures, multiple realties and interpretations, that are grounded in theory, which  then develop into an understanding of the perspectives of the actors and their particular setting. A main difference with qualitative research is that it remains flexible throughout the study and is able to change. The data is also different from quantitative approach. The data is descriptive and typically deals with qualities. Qualitative research is often involving notes, artifacts, people’s own words, personal documents, or official documents. Because of this it can be often difficult to manage and present qualitative data. In terms of the studies the groups tend to be smaller than in quantitative studies and can be non-representative of the larger group or population. The researcher however has a high involvement with the participants in the study, often to build their trust. The main techniques and methods available in ways to study the group in qualitative research includes by observation, participant observation, reviewing documents and artifacts, open-ended interviews, coding, searches for patterns, pattern matching, and narrative and displays for portrayal of data. The final aspect of qualitative study is what instrument and tools are available to the researcher. “In the qualitative study the researcher is often the only “tool for data collection.” (Bailey) There’s a lot to grasp between these two types of research. I agree with how the quantitative deals with numbers and gives a better intpretation of the results. With the quantitative it is black and white and there’s no grey area to be mislead by. The qualitative aspect however works better when one needs to gather first hand information from patients and observations. This type is better when one is not trying to prove an aspect or theory. Also with qualitative there is the fact that human error and cloud the results with quantitative there is little chance of human error in the way it is researched. All in all I feel that if I had to prove a result or occurrence I would rather use the quantitative method because the results would be black and white and I wouldn’t be subjecting the results to a grey area like I would if I used the qualitative method.

We have stated that the researcher must remember the equation [dependent variables = independent variables]. Discuss the differences between independent and dependent variables and the influence one exerts upon the other.  How was this theorem influential in your study or project?

“The independent variable is sometimes called the experimental or treatment variable. The dependent variable (appearance) determines the effectiveness of the manipulation or treatment and is the item observed and measured at the beginning and the end of the study.” (Bailey 43-44) Basically the independent variable is only changed by the experiment being preformed. The dependent variable solely depends on the independent variable and changes based on the independent variable. This idea was influential in my study. I was attempting to explain the different types of sleep apnea and causes of sleep apnea in patients. For my research the

Create a list of the independent variables you identified in your study (Hint: these
are important client, institutional, environmental, or patient characteristics).  Give one example of a variable you could change or 'fix' in a departmental, governmental, or organizational policy.

Patients body weight, Patient’s genetics, Patients age, I hope to able to fix patient’s body weight.

When creating a study, one must address the operational definitions for individual studies.  Give 3 examples of operational definitions you encountered in your project.  How does this process help or hinder the researcher?

In my research project the first thing I had to address was what was Sleep Apnea and what types of sleep apnea were there in existence. After addressing that issue I moved on to signs and symptoms involved with the condition of sleep apnea. Finally I listed the possible treatments of sleep apnea. By listing such information I help define the subject for myself and the readers as well. This condition is often overlooked and is can be life threatening.  

Define the different scales of measurement (i.e. Ordinal, Nominal, Interval, Ratio). In each of these scales of measure, how would the researcher decide on which statistical analysis to use?  How did you decide what methodology to use (theoretically, you told me in METHODS chapter what you decided to do with all of the datum).

“Nominal data are the numbers applied to nonnumerical variables. There is no ordered relationship between categories, meaning that one category could not be considered to come before or after another category. Because there is no numerical value to categories, they cannot be meaningfully added, subtracted, or multiplied, and so forth. One cannot calculate an average ( mean) disability, for example. A nominal scale may also be used to code responses on a survey as “yes/no” or “Never/sometimes/always.” (Bailey 120-121) This type of measurement uses mode and cross tabulation with chi-squares.

“Ordinal data are numbers that still are discrete but are ordered; however, the intervals between the categories are not known and cannot be assumed to be equal.” (Bailey 121) An example of this type of scale would be to choose which chocolate is the best to the least. For example 1- Milk Chocolate, 2 – White Chocolate, 3 – Dark Chocolate, 4- Semi Sweet Chocolate, 5- Bittersweet Chocolate. In this example the order of the numbers is what is important, if this was a study. Also Ordinal data is typically associated with median, mode, rank order of correlation, and non-parametric analysis of variance.

“Interval data also are ordered in a logical sequence. However, this time the intervals between the numbers are considered equal and represent actual amounts. These are continuous data. Examples are the intelligence scores, degrees of muscle strength, and degrees of perceptual motor skills.” (Bailey 121)

Interval data incorporates the usage of  mean and standard deviation, correlation – r, regression, analysis of variance, and factor analysis.

The last of measurement is ratio. This type is unique in that is is the top level of measurement, however it is almost always not available in the social research. Another unique aspect is that in this data there is a true zero point.

6. Discuss the types of reliability. Why does a researcher in health care consider reliability an important component of their study?

The aspect of reliability is important to all researchers and health care. To be reliable a repeat of the study must be conducted and similar or the same finding must be found to prove the study’s reliability. By finding a study reliable it boosts confidence the study. To make sure a study is reliable there are certain tests that must be performed on the study.

The first test preformed is test-retest reliability.”Test-retest reliability is concerned with the reliability of scores over time. Subjects are measured regarding some characteristics; a period of time is allowed to elapse; and the same subjects are remeasured on the same characteristic. The scores of the two administrations are then examined and, assuming that the conditions and the characteristic being measured are stable, the scores should be similar.” (Bailey 103)

The next test is called a Split-half reliability test. “Split-half reliability concerns the extent to which different parts of an instrument are measuring the same thing. To assess this type of reliability, the test is divided into two parts and subject’s scores on the two groups of items are compared. The two scores should be similar in order for the test to be considered reliable.” (Bailey 103)

The final test is the Interrater reliability. “Interrater reliability is the extent to which different raters or observers perceive the same person or characteristic similarly. There are two parts to this concept: first, are observers consistent in their ratings within themselves, and second, are observers consistent in their rating with other observers? Here again, ratings should be similar if observers are to be considered reliable.” (Bailey 103)

Another important aspect about the study to be reliable is to keep in mind the subject’s fatique, subject’s motivation, subject’s learning, subject’s ability, tester’s skill, different testers, and the testing environment. (Bailey 72)
 

7. Define validity. Examine internal and external validities and list attributes or problems associated with validity issues (think from the perspective of a potential patient or an informed peer reviewer of your study).

“Validity is concerned with the accuracy of scientific findings.” (Bailey 70) There are two types of validity the first is internal validity. Internal validity – are investigators actually observing and measuring what they think they are observing or measuring.” (Bailey 70) Internal validity involves history, maturation, testing, subject selection, subject mortality or attrition, and instrumentation. History involves contamination of possible changes not for seen in the study for example, changes in the patients, environment, injury, loss of interest. If these instances can happen it can damage the results in terms of contamination of the data. The nest issue can be maturation of the subjects due to the time involved in the study. Often subjects and grow and change during the study. Another issue is the way testing is given. Often subjects can improve on the tests given mainly, because they have been administered tests often and in turn they receive higher marks due to the issue of repeditive testing. Subject selection also is important in the study. Volunteers typical might perform differently than those choosen randomly or assigned to the project. It is important to watch and attempt to identify such issues if possible. A difficult issue that can possible arise is the concer of subject’s mortality. A subject could pass away during the study or become ill and unable ot participate. In such an even it is important to have a reserve of other candidates to choose from and use in case replacements are needed to substitute for the empty places that could arise. Finally the third issue that can happen in internal validity is the issue with instrumentation. This can happen in a instrument used is improperly calibrated or is in poor condition. Also the issue could stem from a miscalculation.

 The second validity is external validity. “External validity – to what extent are the ideas generated or tested by the investigators applicable to other groups?” (Bailey 70)
 In my study the internal validity is the subjects that see the doctor, because someone has mentioned they might have sleep apnea, or they aren’t getting effective sleep and they go to the doctor to diagnose the problem. 2. The external validity is the sleep study on the patient. This is important to recognize in case if their condition worsens their situation could become life threatening to them. Items to be watchful in an external validity study involve the Hawthorne Effect, replication, Generzlizability, multitreatments, and researcher effect. The Hawthorne effect is if subjects “Are performing better on the study tests simply because they are getting special attention, and not necessarily because of the treatment they are receiving.” (Bailey 71) Replication is important in the study so that other are able to replicate the study and receive similar results thus proving the validity of your study as well as the fact that it is a worthwhile study. Another concern with external validity is the generalizability issue. This is the application that the results found in the study and be applied to the general population. This is helpful in proving the relevance of the study and putting it on a much larger sscale than just on the small group setting. Multitreatment is help when faced with many multiple independent values. This process involves test the subjects with numerous tests. However this type of testing often clouds the results and makes narrowing the cause of improvement or reasons on non improvement difficult. Finally there is the issue of researcher effect. This effect comes from the subjects sometimes behaving in a certain way during the study due to the relationship with the researcher. This can often be a good or bad thing.

8. Discuss the characteristics of a quantitative research design. Name and discuss at least two designs from this worldview or viewpoint.  Why would you decide to use this worldview or research methodology (instead of qualitative)?

“Quantitative research designs are predetermined and structured, and do not change during the course of the study; they are formal and specific according to a defined model and are used as a detailed plan of operation.” (Bailey 49) The purpose of quantitative research is theory-testing: to establish facts, show causal explanations and relationships between variables, allow prediction, and strive for generalizability. Quantitative methods include experiments and quasi-experiments, structured surveys, structured surveys, structured interviewing, structured observation, data sets, manipulation, control, and statistical analysis of data. Quantitative strong point is that it is numerical data. It’s hard to dispute numbers. Also with this system it limits human error in the research or study. The only down side with numbers is that they can become boring. Also taking in research and performing studies to get the numerical data that one’s needs can often be time consuming and labor intensive. However the end result is crystal clear and there isn’t any grey area in the study as compared to if the user used a qualitative approach.

9. Discuss the characteristics of a qualitative research design. Name and discuss at least two designs from this worldview or viewpoint. Why would you decide to use this worldview or research methodology (instead of quantitative)?

To better understand the characteristics of a qualitative research design it’s important to understand the purpose of the qualitative research design. “The purpose of qualitative research, on the other hand, is to develop concepts that will sensitize readers to cultures, describe multiple realities and interpretations, develop grounded theory, and develop grounded theory, and develop an understanding of the perspectives of the actors and of that particular setting.” (Bailey 49) The designs of qualitative research in general in nature rather than confined, it is always evolving throughout the study and remains flexible allowing for change. The data for such a study is descriptive and deals with qualities. It may contain field notes, artifacts, people’s own words, personal documents, or official documents. Qualitative data are extensive and can be difficult to manage effectively. In terms of the subjects used for such samples they consist of a smaller group than typically used in a quantitative study. Also the qualitative group might not represent the larger group or population in general. With qualitative research “The investigator usually has intense contact with participants over a long period of time. There is an emphasis on trust.” (Bailey 50) When it comes to the techniques or methods used the “Qualitative method includes observation, participant observation, reviewing documents, and artifacts, open-ended interviewing, coding, searches for patterns, pattern matching and narrative and displays for portrayal of data.” (Bailey 50) This type of study is often hard to replicate since there’s not any information in terms of statistics being obtained. Also the information is usually taken in the field and not in a laboratory which also makes this hard to replicate. Since the study is based on the society being viewed. Which to replicate the study one would have to make a similar society. This could also disrupt the validity of the study. Over all this type of research would be perfect in studying perhaps cultural anthropology since that subject typically involves observing a culture in it’s natural environment. The qualitative research would also be helpful in a topic where numbers and figures aren’t required.

10. Your instructor has stated that “…the best positivistic (quantitative) studies often arise from a relativist study or (qualitative) framework of inquiry.” Discuss advantages and disadvantages of qualitative and quantitative research designs.  If you had it to do over, would you change the methoodology you used in your study?

With the quantitative research there is a definite end point and it based on hard numerical evidence. While qualitative is more open and allows for change. Also qualitative instead of dealing with statistical values and measures deals with field notes, people’s own words, personal documents, field notes, or official documents. The advantages of quantitative research are, that it is often backed by statictics that is hard to dispute and numerical values and many studies. While qualitative research is one that deals with the sociological and psychological rewards to the research and often offers no clear end point. If I had the chance to pick one if I had the funding, staff, and facilities I would choose the quantitative to use. That way me results would be backed and filled with numerical and structured evidence. This would make it difficult to challenge. Also with the quantitative approach the reader wouldn’t need any help in understanding or having to have an explanation of the clear goal of the research compared to the often unclear goal in a qualitative research method.